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Guide
Introduction
| |
| Background: |
Speculation over the
existence of a "southern land" was not confirmed until the
early 1820s when British and American commercial operators and British
and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Peninsula region
and areas south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1838 was it
established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group
of islands. Various "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th
century, including: 1902, first balloon flight (by British explorer
Robert Falcon SCOTT); 1912, first to the South Pole (five Norwegian
explorers under Roald AMUNDSEN); 1928, first fixed-wing aircraft flight
(by Australian adventurer/explorer Sir Hubert WILKINS); 1929, first
flight over the South Pole (by Americans Richard BYRD and Bernt BALCHEN);
and 1935, first transantarctic flight (American Lincoln ELLSWORTH).
Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific research on
the continent. A number of countries have set up year-round research
stations on Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims, but no other
country recognizes these claims. In order to form a legal framework for
the activities of nations on the continent, an Antarctic Treaty was
negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing
territorial claims; signed in 1959, it entered into force in 1961. |
| Location: |
continent mostly south of the
Antarctic Circle |
| Geographic
coordinates: |
90 00 S, 0 00 E |
| Map
references: |
Antarctic Region |
| Area: |
total: 14
million sq km
land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free, 13.72
million sq km ice-covered) (est.)
note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa,
North America, and South America, but larger than Australia and the
subcontinent of Europe |
| Area
- comparative: |
slightly less than 1.5 times
the size of the US |
| Land
boundaries: |
0 km
note: see entry on International disputes |
| Maritime
claims: |
none; twenty of 27 Antarctic
consultative nations have made no claims to Antarctic territory
(although Russia and the US have reserved the right to do so) and do not
recognize the claims of the other nations; also see the Disputes -
international entry |
| Climate: |
severe low temperatures vary
with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica
is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation;
Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures
occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing |
| Terrain: |
about 98% thick continental
ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and
4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to 5,140 meters; ice-free coastal areas
include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic
Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form
ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves
constitute 11% of the area of the continent |
| Elevation
extremes: |
lowest point:
Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,540 m
highest point: Vinson Massif 5,140 m
note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden
in the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest ice yet
discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under sea water |
| Natural
resources: |
iron ore, chromium, copper,
gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons
have been found in small uncommercial quantities; none presently
exploited; krill, finfish, and crab have been taken by commercial
fisheries |
| Land
use: |
arable land: 0%
permanent crops: 0%
permanent pastures: 0%
forests and woodland: 0%
other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%) |
| Irrigated
land: |
0 sq km (1993) |
| Natural
hazards: |
katabatic (gravity-driven)
winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form
near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and
move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and
isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak;
large icebergs may calve from ice shelf |
| Environment
- current issues: |
in 1998, NASA satellite data
showed that the antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record, covering
27 million square kilometers; researchers in 1997 found that increased
ultraviolet light coming through the hole damages the DNA of icefish, an
antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown to
harm one-celled antarctic marine plants |
| Geography
- note: |
the coldest, windiest,
highest (on average), and driest continent; during summer, more solar
radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the
Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable |
| Population: |
no indigenous inhabitants,
but there are seasonally staffed research stations
note: approximately 29 nations, all signatory to the
Antarctic Treaty, send personnel to perform seasonal (summer) and
year-round research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans; the
population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and
its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region
covered by the Antarctic Treaty) varies from approximately 4,000 in
summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel
including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research are present
in the waters of the treaty region; Summer (January) population - 3,687
total; Argentina 302, Australia 201, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Bulgaria 16,
Chile 352, China 70, Finland 11, France 100, Germany 51, India 60, Italy
106, Japan 136, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 60, Norway 40, Peru
28, Poland 70, Russia 254, South Africa 80, Spain 43, Sweden 20, UK 192,
US 1,378 (1998-99); Winter (July) population - 964 total; Argentina 165,
Australia 75, Brazil 12, Chile 129, China 33, France 33, Germany 9,
India 25, Japan 40, South Korea 14, NZ 10, Poland 20, Russia 102, South
Africa 10, UK 39, US 248 (1998-99); year-round stations - 42 total;
Argentina 6, Australia 4, Brazil 1, Chile 4, China 2, Finland 1, France
1, Germany 1, India 1, Italy 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1,
Poland 1, Russia 6, South Africa 1, Spain 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3,
Uruguay 1 (1998-99); Summer-only stations - 32 total; Argentina 3,
Australia 4, Bulgaria 1, Chile 7, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 3, NZ 1,
Peru 1, Russia 3, Sweden 2, UK 5 (1998-99); in addition, during the
austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as
tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in
support of research (July 2001 est.) |
| Country
name: |
conventional long form:
none
conventional short form: Antarctica |
| Government
type: |
Antarctic Treaty Summary -
the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force
on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of
Antarctica. The 23rd Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was held in
Peru in May 1999. At the end of 2000, there were 44 treaty member
nations: 27 consultative and 17 non-consultative. Consultative (voting)
members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as
national territory (some claims overlap) and 20 nonclaimant nations. The
US and Russia have reserved the right to make claims. The US does not
recognize the claims of others. Antarctica is administered through
meetings of the consultative member nations. Decisions from these
meetings are carried out by these member nations (within their areas) in
accordance with their own national laws. The year in parentheses
indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative
(voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an original
1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia,
Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative
nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), Bulgaria (1998) China (1985),
Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy
(1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989),
Poland (1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988),
Uruguay (1985), and the US. Non-consultative (nonvoting) members, with
year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Canada (1988),
Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965),
Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987),
Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland
(1990), Turkey (1995), Ukraine (1992), and Venezuela (1999). Article 1 -
area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as
weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may
be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2
- freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue;
Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with
the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize,
dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be
asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear
explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes under
the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south
and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers have
free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect
all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all
expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel must be given;
Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by
their own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place
among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage
activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty;
Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned
or, ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding,
interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations. Other
agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative
meetings and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for Fauna
and Flora (1964) which were later incorporated into the Environmental
Protocol; Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972);
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains
unratified; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic
Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998;
this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment
through five specific annexes: 1) marine pollution, 2) fauna and flora,
3) environmental impact assessments, 4) waste management, and 5)
protected area management; it prohibits all activities relating to
mineral resources except scientific research. |
| Legal
system: |
Antarctica is administered
through meetings of the consultative member nations. Decisions from
these meetings are carried out by these member nations (within their
areas) in accordance with their own national laws. US law, including
certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder,
may apply extra-territorially. Some US laws directly apply to
Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C.
section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the
following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: the
taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous
plants and animals; entry into specially protected areas; the discharge
or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain
items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act
carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The
National Science Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement
responsibilities. Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act
of 1978, as amended in 1996, requires expeditions from the US to
Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar
Affairs, Room 5801, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which
reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty.
For more information, contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs,
National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230; telephone: (703)
292-8030, or see their website at www.nsf.gov. |
| Economy
- overview: |
Fishing off the coast and
tourism, both based abroad, account for the limited economic activity.
Antarctic fisheries in 1998-99 (1 July-30 June) reported landing 119,898
metric tons. Unregulated fishing landed five to six times more than the
regulated fishery, and allegedly illegal fishing in antarctic waters in
1998 resulted in the seizure (by France and Australia) of at least eight
fishing ships. Companies interested in commercial fishing activities in
Antarctica have put forward proposals. The Convention on the
Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources determines the
recommended catch limits for marine species. A total of 13,193 tourists
visited in the 1999-2000 summer, up from the 10,013 who visited the
previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers on 24 commercial
(nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that made 143 trips during
the summer. Most tourist trips lasted approximately two weeks. |
| Telephones
- main lines in use: |
0
note: information for US bases only (2001) |
| Telephones
- mobile cellular: |
NA |
| Telephone
system: |
general assessment:
NA
domestic: NA
international: NA |
| Radio
broadcast stations: |
AM NA, FM 2, shortwave 1
note: information for US bases only (1998) |
| Television
broadcast stations: |
1 (the US Navy Antarctic
Support Group operates a cable system with six channels for the American
Forces Antarctic Network-McMurdo)
note: information for US bases only (2000) |
| Televisions: |
several hundred at McMurdo
Sound
note: information for US bases only (2001) |
| Internet
country code: |
.aq |
| Internet
Service Providers (ISPs): |
NA |
| Ports
and harbors: |
there are no developed ports
and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal stations have offshore
anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small
boats, barges, and helicopters; a few stations have a basic wharf
facility US coastal stations include McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40 E), Palmer
(64 43 S, 64 03 W); government use only except by permit (see Permit
Office under "Legal System"); offshore anchorage is sparse and
intermittent |
| Airports: |
19
note: 27 stations, operated by 16 national governments
party to the Antarctic Treaty, have aircraft landing facilities for
either helicopters and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial enterprises
operate two additional aircraft landing facilities; helicopter pads are
available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice,
blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing
aircraft; of these, 1 is greater than 3 km in length, 6 are between 2 km
and 3 km in length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 3 are less
than 1 km in length, and 2 are of unknown length; snow surface skiways,
limited to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at
another 15 locations; of these, 4 are greater than 3 km in length, 3 are
between 2 km and 3 km in length, 2 are between 1 km and 2 km in length,
2 are less than 1 km in length, and 4 are of unknown length; aircraft
landing facilities generally subject to severe restrictions and
limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions;
aircraft landing facilities do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval
from the respective governmental or nongovernmental operating
organization required for landing (2001 est.) |
| Airports
- with unpaved runways: |
total: 19
over 3,047 m: 6
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
914 to 1,523 m: 4
under 914 m: 5 (2000 est.) |
| Heliports: |
27 stations have helicopter
landing facilities (helipads) (2001 est.) |
| Military
- note: |
the Antarctic Treaty
prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment
of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military
maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use of
military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other
peaceful purposes |
| Disputes
- international: |
Antarctic Treaty freezes
claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government type entry); sections
(some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New
Zealand, Norway, and UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize
the territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims
themselves (the US and Russia reserve the right to do so); no claims
have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees
west |
|
